Organic sorghum begins long before planting. This publication looks at how plant breeding, seed quality, soil biology, organic production, and farmer testing work together to move better sorghum genetics from the breeding program to the organic farm.
This material is adapted from a presentation prepared for the 2026 Global Sorghum Conference, held September 14–18 in Lubbock, Texas. The Conference was hosted by Texas Tech University in partnership with the Global Sorghum Association and the conference brought together more than 400 participants from 20 countries. The next conference will be held in Australia in a few years, and I certainly hope to attend!
Figure 1. Organic sorghum begins with genetics, but successful seed systems also depend on biological performance, agronomic adaptation, and market availability.
Organic Sorghum Starts With Seed
Sorghum fits organic agriculture particularly well. It is drought and heat adapted, works in rotations, and can serve grain, forage, livestock, and increasingly specialty food markets.
But there is a bottleneck.
The farmer can only plant the genetics that somebody is willing and able to put in a seed bag.
In my experience, organic sorghum seed availability has not kept pace with the need for regionally adapted genetics and greater seed choice.
So, when I say organic sorghum begins with seed, I mean that every successful crop begins long before the planter enters the field.
Figure 2. Organic sorghum varieties for organic production must establish rapidly, compete effectively, and finish with acceptable yield and grain quality.
What Does an Organic Farmer Need From Sorghum Seed?
I think about what an organic farmer needs from sorghum in three very simple stages.
First, it has to GET UP.
We need germination, vigor, rapid emergence, good coleoptile development, and strong early rooting. We do not have the same ability to compensate for weak establishment without seed treatments prohibited in organic production.
Second, it has to COMPETE.
Early growth, canopy development, rooting (fast and deep), nutrient acquisition, and weed competitiveness become part of our weed and fertility management system.
And then it has to FINISH.
It has to resist disease and insects, remain standing (no lodging), mature properly, produce quality grain, and ultimately yield.
The important distinction is this:
In an organic system, we often ask the plant to perform some of the functions that conventional agriculture asks inputs to perform.
Figure 3. Seed enters an existing biological system shaped by soil, climate, cropping history, and management.
The Seed Enters a Biological System
There is another dimension that we are becoming increasingly interested in: biology.
In our long-term organic cotton and sorghum fields, we are documenting greater microbial diversity, increasingly structured microbial communities, and functional specialization over time.
We are also seeing microbial populations associated with nutrient mineralization, soil aggregation, plant–microbe interaction, and resilience to stress.
But I want to emphasize something important.
There does not appear to be one universal “organic microbiome.”
Instead, organic management seems to strengthen environmental selection. Each field develops a community influenced by its soil, climate, cropping history, and management.
Now introduce seed into that system.
The seed itself carries microorganisms.1 Those organisms enter a soil containing an already established microbial community, and different plant genotypes may interact differently with that biology.2
So one research question I think deserves much more attention is:
If the soil microbiome becomes locally adapted, should we also be considering the seed microbiome as part of crop adaptation? Testing, testing, testing!
Perhaps eventually we need to think beyond simply genotype by environment toward genotype × environment × microbiome × management.
Figure 4. Organic sorghum breeding targets extend beyond yield to establishment, competition, resilience, harvestability, and market quality.
What Should We Breed and Select For in Organic Sorghum?
Earlier I showed you what the farmer needs from the plant. Now I want to turn those production needs into breeding targets.
I am not suggesting that yield becomes less important. Farmers are still paid for yield.
But the pathway to that yield may be different in an organic system.
For establishment, vigor, emergence, rooting, and seedling disease resistance may become especially valuable.
For competition, early biomass, canopy development, weed competitiveness, and nutrient capture matter.
For resilience, sorghum already gives us tremendous strengths in heat and drought tolerance, stay-green, disease resistance, and yield stability.
And ultimately we still need standability, uniform maturity, grain quality, and the end-use characteristics the market wants.
One additional question is plant–microbe recruitment. “Can we eventually identify or select sorghum that interacts particularly well with beneficial soil organisms?”
We cannot select effectively for an organic production system unless we actually observe phenotype under that production system. The genotype may look excellent on paper or in another environment, but we have to see how it expresses itself where nitrogen release is biological, weed competition is real, and seedling protection is limited.
We may need to put more selection pressure on traits thatallow the plantto solve problems for itself.
Figure 5. Organic seed production must protect genetic purity, crop performance, seed quality, and organic integrity.
Producing Organic Sorghum Seed: Protecting Purity and Performance
Once we identify the genetics we want, somebody still has to produce the seed.
And seed production is notgrainproduction.
With grain, I am primarily concerned about what I harvest this year. With seed, I am responsible for what happens in somebody else’s field next year.
First, we protect genetic purity through field isolation, regularly rogueing any off-types, and managing pollen movement and flowering.
Second, we protect the seed crop.
Weed control during flowering and seed fill matters.
Fertility has to be synchronized with crop demand using organic sources.
Disease management becomes especially important, and establishment has to occur without the conventional synthetic seed treatments that may normally provide some protection.
Finally, we protect the seed at harvest. Timing, uniform maturity, weathering, and deterioration all affect the quality of what eventually goes into the seed bag.
So we are trying to preserve genetic identity, biological quality, and organic integrity simultaneously.
Figure 6. Seed quality can be preserved or degraded at every step from harvest through cleaning, conditioning, storage, testing, and bagging.
Organic Seed Quality Does Not End at Harvest
Harvest does not finish seed production.
In fact, every step shown here can either preserve seed quality or degrade it.
Harvest can mechanically damage seed through improper combine settings, augers, handling, and repeated drops.
Cleaning removes contaminants, but poorly adjusted equipment can also damage seed.
Conditioning or seed sizing influences uniformity and physical quality.
Storage conditions affect germination, vigor, and longevity, while insect management must remain compatible with organic requirements.
Testing tells us whether the seed still performs as expected.
Bagging must preserve lot identity, traceability, and certified organic integrity.
For organic seed there is an additional layer: equipment cleanliness, commingling prevention, lot identity, weed seed contamination, and documentation all matter.
And biologically, we increasingly need to think about seed health, seedborne pathogens, and perhaps what these processes are doing to the seed microbiome.
The field produces the seed, but post-harvest handling determines whether that seed reaches the farmer with its quality and integrity intact.
And this is where market integrity enters the seed system. Organic operates as an identity-preserved, documented production and handling system. The seed not only has to germinate; we must be able to document what it is, where it came from, and that its organic integrity was maintained.
Figure 7. Promising genetics should move progressively from breeding nurseries to organic testing, farmer strips, regional evaluation, and ultimately seed increase.
Test It Where It Will Be Grown
This may be the most practical recommendation I can give the breeding community.
Test promising material in the environment where you expect farmers to grow it.
At Texas A&M we are increasingly moving material from breeding programs into certified organic fields—not only sorghum, but wheat, corn, cotton, cowpea, guar, peanuts, and other crops.
The progression I would like to see become more routine is simple:
We do not need every breeding program to become an organic breeding program.
But organic production should become one of the environments in which promising germplasm is evaluated.
Farmers also need to participate earlier. They see things in larger fields that we may never see in a small research plot—emergence problems, weed competitiveness, maturity differences, harvestability, and management interactions.
That farmer feedback should then move back into the breeding program.
Building Better Organic Sorghum Seed Systems
Better organic sorghum does not end with better genetics. The genetics must be evaluated under organic management, multiplied without losing purity or quality, handled carefully after harvest, and ultimately placed in the hands of farmers who can test them under real production conditions.
If we want organic sorghum production to grow, we cannot simply breed better sorghum. We must build better seed systems. That means breeders, agronomists, seed producers, organic farmers, researchers, certifiers, and markets working together to move useful genetics all the way from the breeding program to the farm.
Cereal rye and hairy vetch are two of my favorite winter cover crops for Texas organic farms. Rye suppresses weeds while hairy vetch fixes nitrogen, making them a productive combination for protecting soil and preparing fields for spring planting.
It is fall in Texas, although the weather certainly doesn’t feel very fall-like. Some organic farmers have finished harvest, others are just starting, and some still have a few weeks to go. But we are heading into an El Niño winter weather pattern, with increased chances for wetter conditions across much of Texas. And in some parts of the state, that fall moisture is already arriving. One of my organic cooperators near in the Texas Panhandle just reported 4 (now it is 10) inches of rain on a field where we planted our organic small-grain variety trial on September 17.1
So I have a question for you: Are you planning on a cover crop?
Organic commodity prices are up and supplies are tight. A good winter cover crop can help get you on the right path for spring planting, but we need to get it planted and growing to capture those benefits. When organic growers ask me about winter cover crops for Texas, cereal rye and hairy vetch are usually at the top of my list. They are among our most broadly adapted winter-hardy cover crops, and I like this combination because the two crops do different jobs—and they do those jobs well. Rye provides ground cover, a large fibrous root system, and substantial biomass, while hairy vetch adds a legume capable of supplying biologically fixed nitrogen to the cropping system.
Rye: Put Something in the Field Before the Weeds Get There
Cereal rye is one of our best tools for winter weed suppression. It establishes well under cool conditions, competes strongly for light, water, and nutrients, and can produce enough biomass to physically suppress winter and early spring weeds. Rye also produces natural compounds that can inhibit germination and early growth of some weed species—a process called allelopathy.2
For an organic farmer who cannot simply reach for a postemergence herbicide, that combination of competition, residue, and allelopathy can be extremely valuable. I like to think of it this way: the goal is not simply to grow a cover crop; it is to occupy the space that weeds would otherwise use. Every square foot occupied by vigorous rye is a square foot where a winter weed has a harder time getting established.
Hairy Vetch: Grow Some of Your Own Nitrogen
Hairy vetch brings nitrogen into the system. Working with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules, vetch captures nitrogen from the atmosphere and converts it into organic forms. As the vetch residue decomposes following termination, a portion of that nitrogen can become available to the following crop.
How much nitrogen we actually gain depends on stand establishment, biomass production, planting date, soil conditions, effective nodulation, and when the vetch is terminated. I do not treat vetch nitrogen as a guaranteed fertilizer rate. However, a good stand producing substantial spring biomass can make a meaningful contribution to the nitrogen budget of the following crop.
Vetches and rye as a mixed crop is a classic cultivation method that is popular again, especially in organic farming.
Why I Like Rye and Vetch Together
What I especially like is the way rye and vetch complement each other. Rye gives us biomass, weed competition, soil protection, and an extensive fibrous root system. Vetch gives us nitrogen fixation and residue with a lower carbon-to-nitrogen ratio that generally decomposes more readily.
Put them together and we have a more balanced cover crop than either species alone. For Texas organic production, where we are trying to manage weeds, protect the soil, encourage biological activity, and supply nutrients without synthetic fertilizers, cereal rye and hairy vetch are difficult to beat as a winter combination.
Remember the Crop That Comes Next
The key is remembering that the cover crop is part of the crop rotation, not simply something we plant between cash crops. Planting date, seeding rate, termination timing, available soil moisture, and the needs of the following crop all matter.
That last point is especially important in Texas. I want enough spring growth to capture the benefits of the rye and vetch, but I do not want my cover crop using water that I will desperately need to establish cotton, corn, sorghum, peanuts, or another summer crop. In our drier production regions, termination timing can be just as important as how much biomass we produce.
So as harvest moves along this fall, take a look at those fields and ask yourself:
What do I want growing there this winter—rye and vetch, or weeds?
For many Texas organic farms, I know which one I would choose.
Rising commercial fertilizer prices could increase competition for manure, compost, and other organic fertility inputs. Organic farmers may want to contact suppliers now and begin securing the nutrients they will need for the 2027 crop.
Harvest is underway or approaching across much of Texas, so fertilizer for next year may not be at the top of anyone’s list right now. But for organic farmers, I think it deserves some attention before we get much farther into fall.
Commercial fertilizer prices have generally moved higher during 2026, particularly for nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. Current fertilizer market reports are also raising concerns about higher fertility costs for the 2027 crop. University of Illinois farm economists recently noted that nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer prices are higher going into fall and that farmers are already beginning to make fertilizer purchasing decisions for 2027.1
Farmdoc Daily graph showing DAP, anhydrous ammonia, and sulfur prices from January 2024 through September 2026. DAP and anhydrous ammonia prices increased during 2025 and remained elevated in 2026, while sulfur prices rose especially sharply, climbing from below $300 per ton in early 2025 to more than $1,000 per ton in mid-2026. Source: GreenMarkets via Bloomberg; graph by farmdoc Daily, University of Illinois.
Why should an organic farmer care about the price of urea, DAP, or anhydrous ammonia when those products are not part of an organic fertility program?
Because conventional fertilizer prices help determine the value of manure, compost, poultry litter, and other nutrient sources that organic farmers depend upon.
When commercial nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium become more expensive, manure and compost become more valuable to conventional farmers as alternative fertilizer sources. A farmer who may not normally consider poultry litter or manure can quickly become interested when the nutrients in that material cost substantially less than purchasing the same nutrients in a fertilizer blend.
That means organic farmers may face more competition for the same products they routinely use.
In January, I normally update my “What Is the True Cost of Compost or Manure?” calculations using current fertilizer and manure prices. The purpose is to compare the nutrient value of manure or compost with the cost of replacing those same nutrients using conventional fertilizer.
Those January 2026 calculations already showed why this matters. One poultry manure source priced at about $43 per ton contained nutrients with a calculated fertilizer replacement value of more than $100 per ton before considering hauling and application costs. As conventional fertilizer prices rise, that replacement value rises as well—even though the manure itself has not changed.
This does not mean every organic producer should rush out and buy whatever manure or compost is available. Nutrient analysis still matters. Transportation matters. Application cost matters. Phosphorus loading matters. And organic producers still need to verify that any material they use complies with their Organic System Plan and certification requirements.
But I do think it means we should start asking questions now.
If you know you will need manure, compost, poultry litter, pelleted fertilizer, or another organic fertility product for the 2027 crop, contact your supplier. Ask what they expect to have available. Ask about price. Get a current nutrient analysis. Calculate how many tons you are likely to need. And perhaps most importantly, find out whether that material can be reserved or contracted ahead of time.
Rows of composting poultry litter are turned and managed inside a covered composting facility. The windrows help promote aeration and controlled decomposition, producing a more uniform organic fertilizer material for agricultural use.Photo courtesy of ViaTrac Fertilizer, used from the ViaTrac Fertilizer photo gallery: https://viatracfertilizer.com/gallery/
Waiting until January or February may mean entering the market after many conventional farmers have already begun looking for the same nutrients.
There is still considerable uncertainty in fertilizer markets, and I am not trying to predict exactly what fertilizer will cost next spring. Retail prices can lag wholesale markets because of inventories, transportation, and purchasing decisions made months earlier.
For an organic farmer, the important message is simpler:
Do not wait for fertilizer prices to tell you that manure and compost have become valuable. Someone else may have already figured that out.
I will update the full compost and manure cost comparison again in January as I normally do. But between now and then, it may be worth making a few phone calls and making sure your 2027 fertility supply is still going to be there when you need it.
Paulson, N., G. Schnitkey, C. Zulauf, and A. Dhakal. 2026. “Sulfur and Increasing Phosphate Fertilizer Prices.”farmdoc daily 16(152), Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, August 25, 2026. ↩︎
Texas guide to organic cowpea production, including varieties, planting, inoculation, fertility, weed control, pests, irrigation, harvest, markets, and seed sources.
Dr. Paul DeLaune looks at Texas A&M’s newly released Ace cowpea being grown in a cover crop scenario. (Texas A&M AgriLife photo by Kay Ledbetter)
Technical content last updated: September 8, 2026 This page is periodically updated as new Texas research, cowpea varieties, organic production information, markets, and seed sources become available.
Table of Contents
Cowpea Production in Texas
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is one of those crops that can be confusing simply because we call it so many different things. In Texas, most farmers are more likely to call it a blackeye pea, field pea, southern pea, cream pea, purple-hull pea, or simply peas than a cowpea. They are all part of the same remarkably diverse warm-season legume species.
Cowpea is especially well suited to Texas because it thrives under conditions that challenge many other legumes. It is a warm-season crop with excellent heat tolerance and relatively good drought tolerance, and it can grow on soils and under rainfall conditions where crops such as soybean may struggle. Today, Texas remains one of the important U.S. cowpea-producing states. Nationally, most vegetable cowpea production has historically been concentrated in Texas, California, and other southern states.1
Cowpea also has a long agricultural history in Texas. By the middle of the twentieth century, black-eyed peas were grown throughout the state, with important commercial production in East Texas and expanding production in the Rio Grande Valley. Henderson County and the Athens area became major centers for production, processing, and shipping.2 During the 1940s and 1950s, Texas commonly harvested tens of thousands of acres of black-eyed peas, and some years exceeded 100,000 acres.
What makes cowpea unusual is the number of ways we can use the same crop. Texas farmers have historically grown cowpeas for fresh peas, dry edible grain, hay, grazing, livestock feed, green manure, and soil improvement. That remains true today. A vegetable grower may harvest immature or mature-green peas for consumers, while a grain producer may allow the seed to dry for food markets. A livestock producer may graze or bale the crop, and a row-crop farmer may grow exactly the same species as a summer cover crop between cash crops. Historic USDA publications likewise described cowpea as one of the major leguminous crops of the Southern states, grown both for forage and soil improvement as well as for human food.3 For a historical perspective, USDA’s 1920 publication Cowpeas: Culture and Varieties provides an excellent snapshot of how cowpea was grown and used across the Southern United States more than a century ago. Many of the crop’s roles described then—forage, soil improvement, food, and rotation—remain relevant today.
Cowpea’s value in organic systems goes beyond its tolerance of Texas summers. Like other legumes, cowpea forms a symbiotic relationship with Bradyrhizobium bacteria that allows the plant to obtain nitrogen from the atmosphere. When properly nodulated, the crop can meet much of its own nitrogen requirement while producing high-protein forage or seed. When cowpea residue remains in the field, some of that biologically fixed nitrogen becomes available to subsequent crops. This ability to produce useful biomass while requiring little or no supplemental nitrogen is one reason cowpea can fit particularly well into organic crop rotations.
Modern Texas research is now bringing renewed attention to the crop. Texas A&M AgriLife researchers are developing cowpeas specifically for Texas environments, including short-season types, improved grain and protein characteristics, stress tolerance, and varieties that can fit between major cash crops. Current Texas A&M AgriLife breeding work is targeting short-season cowpeas that can fit profitably into existing Texas cropping systems.
That short-season concept could be especially valuable in organic farming. Cowpea can potentially fit between winter grains or into other windows where a grower wants a warm-season crop that produces biomass, fixes nitrogen, suppresses weeds, provides forage, or generates a second cash crop without occupying the field for an entire season.
One of the strengths of cowpea is its versatility. A Texas producer may grow essentially the same species as a cover crop, high-quality forage, pasture, fresh vegetable, dry edible grain, or seed crop. However, the characteristics that make a good cowpea for one use may be very different from those needed for another. Variety selection should therefore begin with the intended use and market.
Cover Crop
Cowpea is one of the better warm-season legumes for organic cropping systems in Texas because it grows rapidly in hot weather, produces substantial biomass, competes well with summer weeds once established, and fixes atmospheric nitrogen through its association with Bradyrhizobium bacteria.
A productive cowpea cover crop can provide several benefits:
add biologically fixed nitrogen to the cropping system;
produce residue and organic matter;
protect the soil from wind and water erosion;
provide rapid summer ground cover;
suppress weeds through shading and competition; and
provide a rotational break between other cash crops.
USDA plant guides report that well-grown cowpea cover crops can produce several thousand pounds of dry matter per acre and potentially contribute substantial nitrogen to a following crop.45 The actual nitrogen benefit depends greatly on biomass production and, importantly, on how much of the crop is removed from the field. A cowpea grown entirely as a cover crop returns considerably more nutrients than one harvested for hay or grain.
Cowpea can be especially useful during otherwise unproductive summer periods in organic rotations—for example, following wheat and before another fall or winter crop. Short-season varieties may make these opportunities even more practical.
Cowpea can produce a high-quality, protein-rich summer hay, either alone or in mixtures with warm-season grasses such as sorghum-sudangrass or millet. The leaves provide much of the forage quality, so varieties with good leaf retention, relatively fine stems, high biomass production, and suitable maturity are desirable.
Hay production changes the role of cowpea in the rotation. The plant may fix considerable nitrogen, but when the aboveground crop is baled and removed, much of the nitrogen contained in that forage leaves the field with the hay. The soil-health and nitrogen benefits therefore should not be assumed to be the same as those from a terminated cover crop.
Texas A&M has previously developed forage-oriented cowpeas such as Ace, 6 selected for forage and hay production as well as cover-crop use. Current Texas A&M breeding efforts continue to include cowpeas specifically suited to forage and cover-crop systems.7
Cowpea can provide nutritious warm-season grazing when perennial pastures slow during summer or when it is incorporated into an annual forage system.
For grazing, I would look for somewhat different characteristics than I would for hay:
strong early growth;
good leaf production;
upright or semi-upright growth that remains accessible to livestock;
standability;
tolerance of defoliation; and
some ability to regrow after grazing.
Cowpea can also be included in mixtures with warm-season grasses, where the grass contributes structure and additional forage while the cowpea contributes protein and nitrogen fixation.
One caution is that regrowth varies considerably among cowpea varieties and with the stage at which they are grazed. A variety developed primarily for grain production may not persist after grazing nearly as well as one selected for forage characteristics. Grazing management and variety therefore need to be considered together.
In Texas we commonly know edible cowpeas as blackeye peas, southern peas, cream peas, purple-hull peas, or field peas. These can be harvested as immature pods, mature-green peas for shelling, or fully dried seed.
Fresh mature-green peas can be a relatively high-value crop, particularly for direct markets, farmers markets, roadside sales, local grocery markets, and processors. Consumer demand tends to be strongly influenced by regional preference. Blackeyes, creams, crowders, and pinkeye-purple hull types all have established markets in the South.
Commercial southern-pea yields can vary considerably, but southeastern Extension information reports shelled fresh-pea yields commonly in the range of roughly 1,000–2,000 pounds per acre,8 depending on variety and harvest method.
For a fresh-market grower, the highest-yielding variety is not necessarily the most profitable. An upright variety that concentrates pods near the top of the plant and can be harvested efficiently may be worth considerably more than a sprawling variety requiring several hand harvests.
Allowing cowpea seed to mature and dry creates an entirely different market. Dry cowpea is an important food pulse internationally and provides a relatively high-protein grain for human diets.
Traditional blackeye peas remain one market, but interest is expanding beyond conventional blackeyes. Cowpea can supply protein for:
packaged dry beans;
milling and flour;
ingredient markets;
ethnic and specialty foods;
export markets; and
emerging plant-protein products.
For dry grain, producers need to emphasize grain yield, maturity, standability, seed size, seed-coat color, uniformity, harvestability, cooking quality, and buyer specifications.
Specialty and export markets make buyer communication particularly important. Seed appearance that is acceptable in one market may be unacceptable in another.
Texas A&M’s current cowpea breeding effort emphasizes high-yielding, short-season cowpeas adapted to Texas as well as improved nutritional value. Short-season varieties could make cowpea particularly useful as both a cash crop and a rotational crop within Texas production systems.9
Cowpea also presents opportunities for commercial seed production, particularly as interest grows in cover crops, organic production, specialty grain markets, and improved Texas-adapted cultivars.
Seed production requires another set of characteristics:
uniform maturity;
good standability at harvest;
resistance to seed shattering;
high germination and vigor;
uniform seed size and appearance;
disease-free seed;
varietal purity; and
good mechanical harvest characteristics.
New varieties being developed specifically for Texas conditions may expand this opportunity. Texas A&M’s Specialty and Organic Crop Breeding Program is developing cowpeas for short-season production, organic systems, improved nutritional quality, forage and cover-crop use, and tolerance to heat, drought, salinity, disease, and insect.10
For organic producers, seed production may become particularly important because availability of suitable certified organic cowpea seed remains limited for many varieties and market classes.
Many cowpea varieties are multipurpose, so these categories should be viewed as a guide rather than a strict classification. A variety selected for one use may also perform well for another, but the most important traits change with the market or production goal.
Variety or type
Best fit/use
Important characteristics
Comments
Ace
Hay, forage, cover crop
High biomass, good forage quality, earlier flowering than Iron & Clay
Texas A&M AgriLife forage cowpea from Overton
Iron & Clay
Cover crop, grazing, forage
Vigorous growth, high biomass, widely adapted
Long-used southern forage/cover crop standard
Red Ripper
Cover crop, forage, grazing
Vigorous vine growth, biomass production
Older southern forage/soil-building type
TAMC 101
Cover crop, forage
Strong canopy development, biomass, N accumulation
Developed through Texas A&M cowpea breeding
Texas Cream 40
Fresh market, dry edible
Cream-colored seed, good eating quality, determinate growth
Traditional southern pea type
Zipper Cream
Fresh market
Large cream pea, good flavor, relatively easy shelling
Seed appearance can also determine market acceptance, particularly for fresh-market, dry edible, and export cowpeas.
Variety availability changes from year to year. Organic producers should also verify whether certified organic or untreated seed is available before finalizing a variety choice.
Cowpea seed is available from several regional and national seed companies, but variety availability can change considerably from year to year. Some suppliers specialize primarily in forage and cover-crop cowpeas, while others offer a much broader selection of fresh-market and dry edible southern peas.
For organic production, growers should first look for certified organic seed of the desired variety. When an appropriate organic variety is not commercially available, untreated nonorganic seed may be allowed under the USDA organic regulations when the required organic seed search and documentation requirements are met.11 Treated seed generally cannot be used unless the treatment itself is allowed for organic production.
Texas organic growers viewing cowpea breeding and variety work during an Organic Variety Production Tour near New Deal, Texas.Photo: Texas A&M AgriLife Organic
Texas A&M cowpea varieties: Several newer cowpea varieties developed by Texas A&M AgriLife are moving through seed increase and commercialization. Seed availability and quantities may therefore vary. The registrations for TAMC 241, TAMC 243, and TAMC 244 state that seed will be available through Texas A&M AgriLife Foundation Seed. Growers should confirm current availability before making production plans.
Several suppliers currently offer cowpea seed useful to Texas growers:
Turner Seed, Breckenridge, Texas – a particularly useful source for field-scale forage and cover-crop cowpeas. Current offerings include Ace, Iron & Clay, California Blackeye, and Red Ripper, as well as cowpea inoculant. Turner lists seed by field-scale planting rates and is therefore a logical starting point for larger-acreage production.
Willhite Seed, Poolville, Texas – offers one of the broader selections of edible southern peas, including Texas Cream 40, Texas Cream 8, Zipper Cream, California Blackeye, Pinkeye Purple Hull types, Top Pick Pinkeye, crowders, and other specialty peas. This makes Willhite especially useful for fresh-market or food-grain producers and for obtaining smaller quantities for variety testing.
Seedway – supplies commercial vegetable seed and currently lists several southern pea/cowpea varieties, including Texas Cream 40, Texas Cream 12, and Texas Cream 8. Seed treatment status should be checked carefully because some commercial lots are sold as treated seed.
Urban Farmer – carries a broad selection of cowpeas and southern peas, including food types such as Pinkeye Purple Hull and Zipper Cream. It may be particularly useful when growers need smaller quantities of specialty varieties.
Other regional vegetable-seed companies may also carry cowpeas, and local seed dealers can sometimes obtain bulk quantities that are not shown in online catalogs.
A note for organic growers
Seed availability should be checked before the production plan is finalized. A variety may have excellent agronomic or market characteristics but be of little practical value if suitable seed cannot be obtained.
When buying cowpea seed for organic production, verify:
variety and lot identity;
certified organic or untreated status;
germination;
seed purity;
seed treatment, if any;
inoculation status;
seed size, because this affects pounds of seed required per acre; and
whether enough seed is available for the intended acreage.
For specialty fresh-market, grain, export, or seed-production contracts, growers should also confirm the buyer-required variety or market class before purchasing seed. A blackeye, cream pea, purple-hull, or other cowpea may all grow successfully in Texas while serving very different markets.
Cowpea is generally easy to establish when planted into warm soil with good seed-to-soil contact and adequate moisture, but stand establishment can be poor when seed is placed into cool, wet soil or planted too deep. Southern pea production guides commonly recommend waiting until soil temperatures are at least about 65°F, with warmer soils giving more rapid and uniform emergence. Oklahoma State is more conservative for commercial production and recommends waiting until soil temperatures have been 70°F or above for several days.12
For Texas, I would emphasize that cowpea is a warm-season crop, so planting date should be driven more by soil temperature and the production window than by a single statewide calendar date. Plant cowpea when soil temperature at planting depth has reached about 65–70°F and has remained in that range for at least five consecutive days. This is more useful than relying on a single minimum temperature because Texas spring weather can fluctuate considerably. Consistently warm soil promotes faster germination, more uniform emergence, and a stronger initial stand. In South Texas and the Lower Rio Grande Valley, planting can begin much earlier than on the High Plains. In northern and western Texas, growers should avoid planting into marginally warm soils simply because the calendar says spring has arrived.
Cowpea seeding recommendations can be confusing because they may be expressed as pounds per acre, seeds per foot of row, or total seeds per acre. These numbers are all related and should be considered together.
Seed size also varies substantially among cowpea varieties. USDA-NRCS information commonly uses about 4,000 seeds per pound, while evaluations of different cowpeas have reported roughly 4,100 to 7,000 seeds per pound.13 This means that planting the same number of pounds per acre can result in very different plant populations.
For example, consider a cowpea planted in 30-inch rows at 4 seeds per foot:
30-inch rows provide about 17,424 row-feet per acre
4 seeds per foot × 17,424 row-feet = 69,696 seeds per acre
At 5,000 seeds per pound, that requires only about 14 pounds of seed per acre
If the seed lot is 90% germination, about 15.5 pounds per acre would be needed to provide approximately 69,700 viable seeds
The basic relationships are:
Seeds per acre = row-feet per acre × seeds per foot
Pounds of seed per acre = desired seeds per acre ÷ seeds per pound
Row spacing therefore matters. University of Georgia recommendations for commercial southern peas commonly use about 4–6 seeds per foot for bush types and 1-2 seeds per foot for vining types, with row spacing adjusted for variety, equipment, cultivation, and harvest method.14
A few examples show how quickly population changes:
Row spacing
Seeds/ft
Approx. seeds/acre
20 inches
4
104,500
30 inches
4
69,700
36 inches
4
58,100
30 inches
6
104,500
36 inches
6
87,100
There is no single ideal population for every cowpea. Fresh-market and grain cowpeas may be planted in rows that accommodate cultivation and harvest, while forage and cover-crop cowpeas are often planted at greater populations to encourage rapid canopy closure and biomass production.
For organic production, row spacing is also part of weed management. Narrower rows and adequate plant populations can produce faster canopy closure and greater competition with summer weeds. However, row spacing must still accommodate the planter, cultivator, harvest equipment, and growth habit of the variety.
The practical recommendation is simple: choose the row spacing and desired plants per foot first, calculate the seed population needed, and then use the actual seeds per pound and germination of the seed lot to determine pounds of seed per acre. Do not select a seeding rate based on pounds per acre alone.
Southern pea production recommendations generally place cowpea seed about ¾ to 1¼ inches deep under normal conditions. In heavier soils or where crusting is a concern, shallower placement is usually safer. On coarse-textured soils where surface moisture is limited, somewhat deeper planting may be justified if moisture is present.15
The key is to place the seed into firm, moist soil without burying it unnecessarily deep. Cowpea seedlings are vigorous, but excessive depth delays emergence and increases the time seedlings remain vulnerable to soilborne disease, insects, and crusting.
A uniform seedbed improves emergence and makes cultivation easier. Oklahoma State recommends preparing a relatively clod-free seedbed for commercial southern pea production, particularly where mechanical harvest is planned.16
Cowpea has good drought tolerance once established, but that does not mean it establishes well in dry soil. Seed needs adequate moisture for rapid germination and root development. If irrigation is available, the better strategy is usually to plant into existing moisture or irrigate soon enough after planting to produce uniform emergence.
For organic growers, rapid and uniform establishment is not simply a stand-count issue. It is one of the first weed-management tools. A cowpea stand that emerges uniformly and closes the canopy quickly can compete strongly with summer weeds. A thin or uneven stand leaves sunlight, water, and nutrients available to weeds and may require substantially more cultivation later.
That makes good seed, accurate seeding rate, proper depth, warm soil, and uniform emergence part of the organic weed-management program, not just planting details.
Cowpea is a legume, so one of its major advantages is the ability to obtain much of its nitrogen through a symbiotic relationship with Bradyrhizobium bacteria. These bacteria infect the roots and form nodules where atmospheric nitrogen is converted into forms the plant can use. That process can greatly reduce the need for added nitrogen fertilizer, but only when the correct bacteria are present and nodulation is successful. Oklahoma State specifically recommends inoculating cowpea seed with the proper inoculum,17 and USDA-NRCS guidance lists cowpea with the cowpea-group rhizobia used for Vigna unguiculata.18
Inoculation
Cowpea should be inoculated with the correct cowpea-group Bradyrhizobium, especially in fields where cowpea or another compatible host has not been grown recently. The inoculant contains living bacteria, so product handling and application are important.
A current commercial example is Exceed® Peat for Peanut/Cowpea/Lespedeza/Mung Bean, which contains Bradyrhizobium sp. (Vigna) and is labeled for organic use.19 Its directions call for 2.5 oz of peat inoculant per 50 lb of seed, applied with about 8.5 oz of clean, cool, non-chlorinated water per 50 lb of seed. The treated seed should be planted promptly; if planting is delayed more than 24 hours, the label calls for reinoculation.
The label also gives useful guidance for fields with no history of the crop: where the host legume has never been grown, it recommends using a higher inoculation rate—about 1.5 to 2 times the normal rate—or combining peat and liquid inoculants.
Because these are living bacteria, inoculants should be protected from heat, drying, and direct sunlight. Freshly inoculated seed should not be left exposed on a hot planter, truck bed, or in direct sun.
For organic growers, the inoculant itself must be acceptable for organic production. The Exceed cowpea product is specifically labeled For Organic Use and carries OMRI listing language.
Inoculation should not end when the seed goes into the ground. I like to pull several plants about 3–5 weeks after emergence and look at the roots.
A successfully nodulated cowpea should have numerous nodules on the taproot and lateral roots. Cut several open. Active nodules are normally pink to reddish inside, indicating that nitrogen fixation is occurring. Small white or pale nodules may be immature or ineffective.
This simple field check can tell us much more than assuming that “cowpea fixes nitrogen.”
Cowpea root nodules. Active nitrogen-fixing nodules are typically pink to reddish inside when effective Bradyrhizobium symbiosis is occurring.Photo: Texas A&M AgriLife Organic
A well-nodulated cowpea generally does not require substantial supplemental nitrogen. Oklahoma State emphasizes that legumes produce nitrogen for their own growth through biological nitrogen fixation, while phosphorus and potassium recommendations for cowpea should be based on soil-test levels.20
This is important because excessive available nitrogen can actually work against what we are trying to accomplish. When readily available soil nitrogen is abundant, legumes rely less on biological nitrogen fixation. Excessive nitrogen can also encourage rank vegetative growth, delay maturity, make harvest more difficult, and increase disease problems. University of Georgia likewise cautions against excessive nitrogen in southern peas.21
For an organic producer, that means cowpea usually should not be treated like corn or sorghum and supplied heavily with manure, compost, or other high-N fertilizers. If the soil already has substantial residual nitrogen, the crop may grow very well while fixing less atmospheric nitrogen.
Phosphorus, Potassium, and Other Nutrients Still Matter
Nitrogen fixation does not eliminate the need for balanced fertility. Cowpea still requires adequate phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, and micronutrients, and these should be based on a soil test.
Phosphorus is particularly important for root development, energy transfer, and nodulation, while potassium supports water relations, stress tolerance, and overall plant growth. Oklahoma State’s fertility tables show increasing phosphorus and potassium recommendations as soil-test levels decline, while requiring little or no additional fertilizer when soil-test levels are already sufficient.22
For organic systems, nutrient sources might include compost, manure, rock-based materials, or other allowed fertilizers, but the same principle applies: apply nutrients because the soil and crop need them, not simply because cowpea is being grown organically.
How Much Nitrogen Does Cowpea Leave for the Next Crop?
This is where the answer becomes more complicated.
Cowpea may fix a substantial amount of nitrogen during the season, but nitrogen fixed by the plant is not automatically equal to nitrogen available to the following crop. What happens to the cowpea biomass matters enormously.
If the entire crop is terminated and incorporated or left as residue, much of the nitrogen contained in the plant remains in the system. If cowpea is harvested for hay, grain, or seed, a significant amount of that nitrogen leaves the field with the harvested product.
Oklahoma State gives an average residual nitrogen credit of about 30 lb N/acre following cowpea, while also emphasizing that only a fraction of the nitrogen fixed by legumes remains available when much of the crop is harvested.23
I would therefore avoid saying that cowpea simply “adds X pounds of nitrogen per acre.” A better way to think about it is:
Nitrogen benefit to the next crop = nitrogen fixed and recycled in crop residue, minus nitrogen removed in harvested forage or grain, plus the effects of residue decomposition and soil conditions.
That distinction is particularly important when comparing cowpea uses. A cowpea cover crop terminated at high biomass may provide a meaningful nitrogen contribution to the next crop, while a high-yielding hay crop may export much of the nitrogen it fixed.
For organic production, successful nodulation is part of the fertility program.
A relatively inexpensive packet of the correct inoculant can substitute biologically for a considerable amount of purchased nitrogen, but only if the bacteria survive, infect the roots, and form effective nodules. That makes proper inoculation, good soil fertility, adequate moisture, and checking nodulation after emergence some of the most important fertility practices in an organic cowpea crop.
The goal is not simply to grow a green crop. It is to establish an effective cowpea-Bradyrhizobium partnership that allows the crop to supply much of its own nitrogen while fitting the fertility needs of the entire rotation.
Cowpea can become a very competitive crop once it develops enough canopy, but the first few weeks after emergence are the critical period. Organic weed control should therefore focus on starting clean, removing weeds while they are very small, and protecting the crop until the rows begin to close.
Start with a Clean Seedbed
A clean seedbed is the foundation of organic cowpea weed control. Tillage before planting should eliminate existing weeds and prepare a uniform seedbed for planting and later cultivation. Where time and moisture allow, a stale seedbed can also be useful: prepare the seedbed early, allow a flush of weeds to emerge, then destroy those seedlings shallowly before planting.
The important idea is to avoid beginning the season with weeds already competing with the cowpea.
The easiest weed to control mechanically is one that has just germinated. Soon after planting and during early crop development, blind cultivation with a rotary hoe or tine weeder can remove very small weeds before they become established. These tools work best when weeds are in the white-thread to cotyledon stage and the soil surface is dry enough for uprooted seedlings to desiccate.
This is the same approach used successfully in many Texas organic row-crop systems: begin with the rotary hoe or tine weeder, then move to more aggressive between-row cultivation as the crop becomes established. My broader resource page discusses these mechanical weed-control approaches in more detail.24
Yetter 3400/3500 Standard Rotary Hoe. Picture – Yetter Farm Equipment
Once the crop is large enough to tolerate cultivation, sweeps or other row-crop cultivators can control weeds between the rows. Cultivation should be shallow enough to avoid unnecessary root pruning while still cutting weeds below the soil surface.
As cowpea develops, the objective changes from repeatedly cultivating the field to helping the crop develop a competitive canopy as quickly as possible. Adequate plant population and appropriate row spacing become part of weed management because faster canopy closure reduces the light available to later-emerging weeds.
That is one reason planting and weed management are closely connected: a thin or uneven cowpea stand is much harder to keep clean than a uniform, vigorous stand.
Timing Matters More Than the Number of Cultivations
A field may receive several mechanical operations, but the number of passes is less important than hitting the weeds at the right stage.
A rotary hoe used against two-inch pigweed is already late. Sweeps trying to remove established weeds are much less effective than the same equipment used when weeds are small. Organic weed management works best as a series of timely operations rather than as a rescue treatment after weeds become obvious.
A practical sequence for many Texas fields may look like:
clean seedbed → rotary hoe or tine weeder → sweeps or cultivator → repeat as needed → canopy closure
Hand hoeing may still be needed for weeds that escape within the row, particularly where those weeds could produce seed and increase problems in future crops. The cost of those escapes can be substantial. In Texas organic peanut production, hand-hoeing costs can exceed $200 per acre when early weed escapes are not controlled.
Hand hoeing can become necessary when early weed escapes are not controlled, adding significant labor and cost. Photo: Texas A&M AgriLife Organic.
With cowpea, the goal is not to keep cultivating all season. The goal is to stay ahead of weeds long enough for the crop canopy to become one of the weed-control tools.
A vigorous, uniform cowpea stand can suppress later-emerging weeds through shading and competition. That makes good stand establishment, appropriate plant population, timely cultivation, and rapid canopy closure all part of the organic weed-management system, not separate practices.
Cowpea can tolerate a fair amount of insect feeding and still produce a crop, but several pests can become economically important, especially when the crop is being grown for fresh peas, dry grain, or seed rather than simply as a cover crop. Organic management should begin with regular scouting, conservation of beneficial insects, and treatment only when pest pressure threatens yield or market quality.
Several organically acceptable products are specifically labeled for black-eyed peas or cowpea. Depending on the pest and product label, options include Beauveria bassiana, azadirachtin products, and physical or barrier products such as Entrapment. The important point is to match the pest, crop, and current label before application. The current organic product list includes materials labeled for black-eyed peas/cowpea and relevant pests such as aphids, thrips, stink bugs, and weevils. 25 Always follow product labels and check with your certifier before treatment.
Thrips can injure young seedlings and later feed in flowers. Heavy infestations may stunt plants, distort new growth, and interfere with flowering and pod set.
A vigorous, rapidly growing stand is the first defense. If treatment is needed, organically acceptable products labeled for black-eyed peas or cowpea include biological, botanical, and physical-control products such as Beauveria bassiana, azadirachtin, and Entrapment. Coverage is important because thrips often feed in protected areas of the plant.
Cowpea aphid can build rapidly on terminals, stems, and the undersides of leaves. Heavy populations remove plant sap, reduce vigor, and produce honeydew. Aphids can also transmit viruses, so they may be important even before direct feeding injury becomes severe.
Natural enemies such as lady beetles, lacewings, syrphid fly larvae, and parasitoid wasps can provide substantial biological control. For that reason, preserving beneficial insects should be part of the management strategy.
If populations continue to increase, organically acceptable products labeled for cowpea or black-eyed peas include Beauveria bassiana, azadirachtin products, and physical-control products such as Entrapment. Beauveria bassiana labels specifically include cowpea aphid among the target pests.
Stink bugs become especially important after pods begin forming. Adults and nymphs insert their mouthparts through the pod wall and feed directly on developing seed. Damage may result in shriveled, discolored, malformed, or poorly germinating seed, which can substantially reduce the value of a fresh-market, dry-grain, or seed crop.
Organic options are more limited than for soft-bodied insects, but biological and botanical materials can provide suppression when applied against smaller populations and with good coverage. Beauveria bassiana products labeled for black-eyed peas include stink bugs among their target pests.
Because pod-feeding insects directly affect marketable seed, scouting should increase as flowering begins and continue through pod fill.
Cowpea curculio can be one of the most damaging pests of southern peas. Adults puncture developing pods to feed and lay eggs, and larvae develop inside the pea. Even relatively modest infestations can create serious quality losses in fresh or dry edible peas.
Organic management should combine rotation, sanitation, destruction of crop residue, avoidance of continuous cowpea production, and biological control where appropriate.
Beauveria bassiana is particularly interesting for organic curculio management. University of Georgia research found that a B. bassiana soil treatment produced the greatest reduction in overwintering cowpea curculio emergence among the treatments tested, with about a 58% reduction compared with the untreated check.26
UGA also notes that B. bassiana strain GHA products can reduce survival of late-instar larvae, pupae, and newly emerged adults during the soil phase of the curculio life cycle. However, heavy curculio infestations remain difficult to control, so preventive cultural practices and early scouting are especially important.
Root-knot nematodes are one of the most important nematode concerns for cowpea in Texas, particularly on sandy soils and in fields where susceptible crops are grown repeatedly. Infected roots develop characteristic galls, and heavily affected plants may become stunted, yellow, less efficient at taking up water and nutrients, and more susceptible to drought stress.
Cowpea root with root-knot nematode galls caused by Meloidogyne spp..Photo Credit: David Hébert, UF/IFAS – Nitrogen-Fixing Legume Nodules
Variety resistance is one of the best tools where resistant material is available. Rotation can also help, although rotation crops must be selected carefully because root-knot nematodes have a very broad host range.
Organic growers also have effective biological nematicide options. Two examples are:
NemaClean® 10% WP from Certis Biologicals contains Purpureocillium lilacinum strain PL11 and is labeled for root-knot and several other plant-parasitic nematodes.27 It can be applied as a soil drench, in-furrow treatment, banded application, or through irrigation systems.
LALNIX® ACT DC from Lallemand Plant Care contains Purpureocillium lilacinum strain 251 and is an OMRI-listed biological nematicide for root-knot and numerous other plant-parasitic nematodes. The fungus attacks nematode eggs and other life stages in the soil.28
These products are most useful when incorporated into an overall nematode-management program rather than treated as stand-alone rescue treatments.
Cowpea can be affected by seedling diseases, root rots, Fusarium wilts, bacterial diseases, viruses, and foliar diseases. Disease pressure depends greatly on variety, seed quality, weather, drainage, crop rotation, and insect pressure.
Cercospera leaf spot. Source: Image source: ICAR Research Complex, India. See University of Georgia Cooperative Extension, Crop Profile for Cowpeas in Georgia.29
The strongest organic disease-management tools are preventive:
start with high-quality, disease-free seed;
use resistant varieties where available;
rotate away from cowpea and other susceptible hosts;
avoid poorly drained or waterlogged fields;
maintain balanced fertility rather than excessive vegetative growth;
reduce unnecessary plant injury;
control volunteer cowpea and legume weeds that may harbor pathogens or virus vectors; and
manage insects such as aphids that can transmit viruses.
Biological fungicides can also have a place in an organic program. For example, Bacillus pumilus products such as Sonata are labeled across broad crop groups that include black-eyed peas.30 Their usefulness will depend on the particular disease, timing, and current product label.
Organic insect and disease management should not begin with the question, “What can I spray?”
A better sequence is:
scout → identify the problem → determine whether it is increasing → consider beneficial organisms and crop stage → evaluate potential economic or market damage → treat only when needed
This is particularly important in cowpea because the crop can tolerate some feeding, while beneficial insects may keep aphids and other pests below damaging levels. At the same time, pests such as cowpea curculio, stink bugs, and root-knot nematodes can directly affect seed quality or yield and may justify a much more active management program.
The goal is not a completely pest-free field. The goal is to protect crop yield and market quality while using biological, cultural, and organically approved tools in a coordinated system.
Cowpea is relatively drought tolerant, but drought tolerance does not mean the crop will produce maximum yield without adequate water. Supplemental irrigation can substantially improve biomass and seed production when rainfall is limited, especially during the hot, dry periods common in Texas.
Cowpea has several traits that help it cope with water stress, including stomatal closure, reduced leaf area, and root systems capable of accessing deeper soil moisture. However, drought tolerance varies considerably among varieties and breeding lines. Some genotypes maintain growth and yield much better than others under limited water.
Texas A&M sources indicate cowpea generally requires about 10 to 15 inches of total seasonal water, including stored soil moisture, rainfall, and irrigation.31 Water demand is not equal across the season, however, and the most critical period is from just before flowering through pod set and early seed fill.
Adequate soil moisture is important for rapid germination, uniform emergence, and early root development. A crop that emerges unevenly because of dry soil will usually remain uneven through the season.
If irrigation is available, planting into good soil moisture is preferable to planting dry and waiting for rainfall. Once established, cowpea can tolerate periods of limited moisture better than many other legumes, but prolonged stress can still reduce canopy development, biomass, flowering, and yield.
If irrigation water is limited, flowering should receive the highest priority, followed by pod set and seed fill.
Recent Mississippi State research found flowering to be the most drought-sensitive stage of cowpea development.32 Drought during flowering increased flower abortion and reduced yield potential, while vegetative stages such as branching were considerably more resilient. Seed fill was also sensitive to water stress.
For fresh-market and grain production, the practical priority is:
flowering → pod set → seed fill
Water stress during these stages can reduce pod number, seed size, and marketable yield.
The amount of irrigation justified for cowpea depends greatly on how the crop will be used.
A cover crop may not need to be irrigated for maximum biomass if the primary goals are soil cover, nitrogen fixation, weed suppression, and rotational benefit.
A hay or grazing crop may justify additional irrigation when the added water produces enough forage to offset the irrigation cost.
A fresh-market or dry-grain crop generally has a stronger economic reason to protect flowering and pod development because drought stress at those stages directly reduces marketable yield and quality.
This is why a single irrigation recommendation does not fit every cowpea production system.
Cowpea performs best in warm, well-drained soils and generally does not tolerate prolonged saturated conditions well. Excess water reduces oxygen in the root zone, restricts root growth and nodulation, and can increase seedling and root diseases.
The goal is therefore not to keep the soil continuously wet. It is to maintain enough available moisture to support growth while avoiding prolonged saturation.
For organic production, good water management supports more than yield. Adequate moisture helps maintain rapid canopy development, weed competition, active root growth, nodulation, nutrient uptake, and soil biological activity.
At the same time, excessive irrigation can increase weeds, disease pressure, nutrient movement, and production costs.
The practical goal is to take advantage of cowpea’s natural drought tolerance while protecting the growth stages that matter most. If irrigation water is limited, establish the crop well and prioritize flowering, pod set, and seed fill rather than trying to maintain uniformly wet soil throughout the season.
Harvest timing depends entirely on how the cowpea crop will be used. A cowpea grown as a cover crop may be terminated while still green and actively growing, while hay, grazing, fresh-market peas, dry grain, and seed production each require a different harvest stage. The important point is to choose the harvest stage that preserves the value you are trying to obtain from the crop.
Cover Crop Termination
For a cowpea grown primarily as a cover crop, termination timing involves balancing biomass production, nitrogen contribution, soil moisture use, and ease of termination.
Cowpea biomass continues to increase as the crop develops, but stems become more fibrous as plants mature and pods begin forming. SARE recommends incorporating cowpea while the crop is still green when rapid decomposition and nutrient release are desired.33 Cowpea residue generally breaks down relatively quickly in warm conditions, allowing relatively rapid nutrient release, so it generally decomposes and releases nitrogen relatively quickly.
Organic growers can terminate cowpea by mowing, grazing, tillage, or combinations of these practices. SARE notes that cowpeas may be mowed or rolled to suppress regrowth before incorporation. Mowing or rolling alone may suppress growth but does not always completely kill cowpea, particularly while plants are still vigorous. Shallow tillage following mowing can provide more complete termination.
Where soil moisture is limited, particularly in western Texas, termination should occur early enough that the cover crop does not unnecessarily use water needed for the following cash crop.
Cowpea can provide high-quality warm-season grazing, but grazing management should protect enough leaf area and growing points to allow regrowth when another grazing period is desired.
Varieties differ considerably in their response to grazing. Vigorous forage types with good standability and regrowth are better suited to repeated grazing than many grain-oriented varieties. Stocking rate and grazing duration should be adjusted to forage availability rather than grazing the crop down to bare stems.
Grazing also changes the nutrient balance compared with hay harvest. Much of the nitrogen and other nutrients consumed by livestock are returned to the field through manure and urine, although they are redistributed rather than returned uniformly.
Cowpea can produce excellent summer hay with relatively high protein and good feeding value. The challenge is balancing forage quality against tonnage.
In its cowpea chapter, SARE reports that cowpea forage is at high feeding value when pods are fully formed and the first pods begin to ripen. Waiting longer may increase tonnage, but stems become coarser and leaf loss increases as the crop matures.
Leaf retention is particularly important because much of the forage quality is concentrated in the leaves. Hay should therefore be handled carefully once dry enough to bale to minimize leaf shatter.
When cowpea hay is removed from the field, remember that much of the nitrogen and other nutrients contained in the aboveground biomass leave with the hay. The rotational nitrogen benefit will therefore be considerably different from that of a cowpea cover crop left entirely in the field.
Southern peas can be harvested at three general stages:
green snap → green shell → dry pea
Green snap peas are harvested while the pod is still tender. Green-shell peas are harvested after the peas have filled the pod but before the seed has fully dried.
For commercial processing, Oklahoma State reports that green-shell peas are commonly harvested when approximately 35–40% of the pods have dried.34 Commercial snap-bean harvesters may be used on bush and semi-vining varieties, while processors may use mobile viners that shell and clean the peas in the field.
Fresh-market growers may hand harvest several times, especially with indeterminate or vining varieties that continue setting pods over an extended period. Multiple harvests can increase total marketable yield, but labor requirements increase substantially. Oklahoma State reports that repeated hand harvests of vining types may increase green-pea yields by about 25% compared with a single harvest.35
For fresh-market production, harvest timing should emphasize seed size, appearance, tenderness, flavor, and shell-out, not simply maximum biological yield.
Dry peas are allowed to mature until the pods and seed have dried sufficiently for mechanical harvest. Small-grain combines can be used, but settings should be adjusted carefully because cowpea seed can be damaged by excessive cylinder or rotor speed and aggressive threshing.
Oklahoma State notes that small-grain combines are commonly used for dry cowpea harvest.36 Variety growth habit also matters because pods on some varieties are carried relatively close to the ground, making low cutting height important for reducing harvest losses.
Commercial combine harvest of a dry-seeded cowpea crop. Small-grain combines are commonly used for dry cowpea harvest, with careful adjustment needed to minimize seed damage. Photo: Texas A&M AgriLife Organic.
Dry cowpea should not remain in the field unnecessarily after maturity. Mature pods can become brittle, increasing the potential for pod shattering, weathering, discoloration, insect damage, and seed-quality loss.
Harvest should therefore be based on pod and seed maturity rather than simply waiting for every plant in the field to become completely dry.
Cowpea grown for planting seed requires greater attention to harvest and handling than cowpea intended only for food or feed.
The objective is not simply to harvest the greatest number of pounds. Seed must retain:
high germination;
strong seedling vigor;
varietal purity;
physical integrity;
freedom from serious seedborne disease; and
good storage quality.
Mechanical damage during combining, augering, cleaning, and conveying can reduce germination even when the seed looks acceptable. Equipment should therefore be adjusted to handle seed as gently as practical.
After harvest, planting seed should be cleaned, dried to a safe storage moisture, and stored under cool, dry conditions. Stored dry cowpea can also be attacked by the cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus), an important pest of stored seed. University of Georgia notes that this insect attacks dried cowpea seed after harvest rather than the crop in the field.37
Harvest is also the point where organic integrity can be lost very quickly.
Combines, grain carts, trucks, augers, cleaners, shellers, bins, and packaging equipment that have handled conventional crops should be adequately cleaned before handling organic cowpea.38 That cleaning should also be documented.
For an organic producer, post-harvest handling is therefore part of production—not something that begins after the crop is finished.
The goal is to maintain the identity and integrity of the crop from:
Cowpea is unusual because the market can be more important than yield in determining which variety should be grown. A high-yielding cowpea may have little value if its seed color, size, eye pattern, cooking characteristics, or maturity do not match what the buyer wants.
For that reason, producers growing cowpea as a cash crop should identify the market before purchasing seed whenever possible.
Oklahoma State specifically emphasizes that buyer preference should be considered when selecting southern pea varieties and notes that processors commonly specify the variety to be grown.39 Market classes differ in growth habit, pod color, seed color, eye color, and seed shape.
Fresh-Market Peas
Fresh-market quality is strongly influenced by local consumer preference. Blackeye, cream, crowder, and pinkeye-purple hull peas may all be cowpeas, but consumers often regard them as distinctly different products.
Important fresh-market characteristics include:
attractive seed color and appearance;
uniform seed size;
tenderness;
flavor;
high shell-out percentage;
freedom from insect injury;
ease of shelling; and
enough maturity concentration to make harvest economical.
For direct-market producers, a variety with excellent flavor and recognizable market identity may be worth considerably more than one selected simply for maximum yield.
Specialty markets make buyer communication before planting especially important.
The Korean cowpea market is a good example.40 A buyer may not simply want “cowpea.” The intended use may require a particular seed color, size, eye pattern, cooking quality, or processing characteristic.
In that situation, the sequence should be:
buyer specification → market class → variety → seed source → production
rather than growing a cowpea first and trying to find a market later.
A physical seed sample or photograph from the buyer can sometimes be more informative than a variety name because market terminology is not always consistent between countries.
Hay and grazing markets evaluate cowpea differently from food markets. Important characteristics include:
forage yield;
crude protein and digestibility;
leaf-to-stem ratio;
maturity;
palatability;
freedom from weeds;
proper curing; and
bale or forage condition at sale.
A forage producer therefore may deliberately select a variety that would be undesirable for a food market because leafiness, biomass, and regrowth are more important than seed appearance.
Seed production can become a particularly valuable niche because interest in cowpea is expanding for cover crops, forage, organic rotations, food markets, and newer improved varieties.
Planting seed must meet standards beyond ordinary grain quality. Buyers expect good germination, vigor, purity, correct varietal identity, and appropriate seed health.
For newer Texas A&M cowpea varieties, commercial opportunity will also depend on licensing, foundation or breeder seed increase, and availability of certified seed classes.41 Some new TAMC material may therefore appear in research publications before farmers can purchase commercial quantities.
For organic producers, a market should be evaluated not only by price but by whether the entire production and handling system can meet the buyer’s requirements.
A specialty buyer may require:
certified organic status + a specific variety or market class + seed-quality specifications + residue expectations + segregation and traceability
That makes the marketing decision part of the production decision.
For a cowpea cash crop, I would encourage growers to ask one question before they plant:
“What exactly does my buyer want to receive?”
The answer may determine the variety, planting population, harvest method, storage system, and ultimately whether the crop is profitable.
Osipitan, O.A.; Fields, J.S.; Lo, S.; Cuvaca, I. 2021. “Production Systems and Prospects of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in the United States.” Agronomy 11:2312. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11112312↩︎
Smith, G., and M. Rouquette, Jr. 2022. Forage Legumes for Texas 2022.Research Center Technical Report 2022-2. Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, Overton, Texas. ↩︎
University of Georgia Cooperative Extension. 2017. Crop Profile for Cowpeas in Georgia. Bulletin 1480. University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. ↩︎
USDA is increasing oversight of organic imports using electronic NOP Import Certificates, Customs data, targeted sampling and enforcement to identify questionable shipments before they enter the U.S. organic marketplace.
In my previous post, “New Organic Import Codes: Why Better Trade Data Matters to Organic Farmers,” I discussed how new organic-specific Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) codes can improve our ability to identify and track organic products moving through international trade. Better identification gives USDA, the organic industry and researchers a clearer picture of what organic commodities are entering and leaving the United States.
But collecting better information is only useful if we actually use it.
Table of Contents
A new USDA National Organic Program (NOP) Oversight and Enforcement Update, released August 26, provides a good example of how USDA is doing just that—combining electronic NOP Import Certificate data, Customs information, document reviews, targeted sampling and enforcement to identify questionable organic imports before they enter the U.S. organic marketplace.
The USDA Strengthening Organic Enforcement (SOE) rule was fully implemented on March 19, 2024. Among its major changes, the rule greatly expanded organic certification requirements throughout the supply chain and made electronic NOP Import Certificates mandatory for nearly all certified organic agricultural products imported into the United States.
The NOP Import Certificate is much more than another piece of import paperwork. The NOP Import Certificate creates an electronic record that helps trace the organic product through the certified exporter and importer and identifies the commodity using the applicable HTS code.
USDA describes this as creating a certification “handshake across the border”—a certified exporter sending the product and a certified importer responsible for receiving it into U.S. commerce.
These records also give NOP a much greater volume of standardized import data that can be analyzed for unusual or potentially fraudulent trade activity.
According to USDA, NOP is now reviewing Import Certificate data to proactively identify suspicious shipments and combining that information with cooperation from U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), documentation reviews, sampling and laboratory testing.
Photo: Fraudulent organic pea protein denied entry at the Port of Long Beach. USDA
USDA’s latest enforcement update provides a particularly interesting example involving organic-labeled pea protein for human consumption arriving at the Port of Long Beach.
NOP and CBP identified pea protein as a higher-risk commodity because of concerns about fraud within global supply chains and conducted targeted sampling and document reviews.
They found problems with two shipments.
One shipment displayed the USDA Organic seal but did not have a certified NOP importer or a valid NOP Import Certificate.
That is now a serious barrier to entry: effective October 1, 2025, USDA no longer allows certified organic shipments arriving without a valid NOP Import Certificate to be reconditioned after arrival so they can enter the organic market. Instead, USDA identifies reexport, destruction or, under specified conditions, donation as the available options.
A second shipment was sampled and tested positive for a prohibited substance, making the product ineligible for sale as organic.
USDA authorized CBP to detain and deny entry to both shipments. Altogether, more than 21 tons of pea protein were prevented from entering the U.S. organic marketplace.
But the enforcement did not stop at the port.
NOP subsequently oversaw suspension of the exporter’s organic certification. USDA reports that certifiers also increased oversight within the associated supply chain through additional sampling, supplier verification and monitoring of implicated handlers.
That last step may be just as important as stopping the individual shipments. Effective organic enforcement means following a problem backward through the supply chain to determine whether it represents an isolated shipment or evidence of a larger integrity problem.
This is where the connection to the new organic HTS codes becomes especially important.
U.S. Customs and Border Protection uses HTS codes to identify commodities entering the country through its Automated Commercial Environment, or ACE. The NOP Import Certificate also requires the appropriate 10-digit HTS code for the organic commodity being imported.
Not every organic commodity currently has its own organic-specific HTS code. When an organic HTS code does not exist, the corresponding conventional commodity code is used on the NOP Import Certificate.
That is why creating additional organic-specific HTS codes matters. The more precisely organic commodities can be identified within trade data, the easier it becomes to understand trade patterns and potentially identify unusual activity.
USDA is also now publishing annual organic import information derived from NOP Import Certificates, providing another source of data on organic products entering the United States.
In simple terms:
HTS codes identify the commodity and, where an organic-specific code exists, allow that organic product to be identified separately in U.S. trade data.
NOP Import Certificates establish the certified organic identity and traceability of imported products—even for commodities that do not yet have their own organic HTS code.
Customs information, certification records, document reviews, sampling and enforcement give USDA tools to determine whether those organic claims are legitimate.
The August enforcement update also provides some perspective on the broader work of the National Organic Program.
NOP reported receiving 755 complaints during 2025 involving potential violations of the organic regulations. Complaints included certified operations that may not have corrected noncompliances, operations suspected of selling more organic product than they could reasonably produce, and uncertified businesses making organic claims through labels, websites, social media or third-party online marketplaces.
Depending on the circumstances, USDA enforcement actions can include warning notices, civil penalties, suspension or revocation of certification, negotiated surrender of certification, publication of fraudulent organic certificates and referral to other state or federal law-enforcement agencies.
USDA also maintains an Organic Enforcement Activity webpage where the public can review settlement agreements, administrative decisions and fraudulent organic certificates.
Organic agriculture is unusual because organic is both a production system and a legally defined market claim.
Farmers and handlers invest considerable time and money complying with organic standards, maintaining records, undergoing inspections, protecting organic integrity and documenting the movement of products through the supply chain.
Fraudulent organic products do more than violate a regulation. They compete directly with legitimate organic farms and businesses that bear the cost of complying with those regulations.
That is why enforcement matters.
The Long Beach pea protein case does not mean that fraud has disappeared from organic supply chains, nor does it mean that every organic import is physically inspected or tested. Organic trade is far too large for that type of system.
What it does demonstrate is that USDA now has considerably better tools for risk-based enforcement—using Import Certificate data, certification records, Customs information, document reviews and targeted sampling to identify shipments or supply chains that deserve closer scrutiny.
There is also an important responsibility for organic handlers. Under Strengthening Organic Enforcement, businesses importing organic products into the United States generally must be certified, and certified operations must evaluate vulnerabilities in their supply chains and maintain appropriate fraud-prevention practices. The Import Certificate is therefore not simply a government enforcement tool; it is also part of the traceability system organic businesses use to verify the integrity of the products they buy and sell.
For farmers and handlers who have repeatedly asked whether USDA is actually checking imported organic products, the Long Beach case provides a useful example of the system working as intended.
The goal should not be to slow legitimate organic trade. The goal is to make it increasingly difficult for a product that does not meet USDA organic requirements to compete in the marketplace as organic.
And that protects everyone who has worked to earn the USDA Organic label.
Strengthening Organic Enforcement Frequently Asked Questions Includes detailed information for organic importers, exporters and customs brokers. USDA SOE Frequently Asked Questions
Data on Imports of Organic Products NOP now publishes import data derived from NOP Import Certificates in addition to organic trade data available through organic HTS codes. USDA data on imports of organic products
New organic-specific import codes will improve tracking of organic products entering the United States, giving farmers, handlers and policymakers better information about trade volumes, origins and market competition.
The U.S. International Trade Commission has added 29 new organic-specific Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) codes for products imported into the United States. While HTS codes may sound like a technical customs issue, this change is important for organic importers, handlers and anyone trying to better understand organic markets.
HTS codes are the numbers used by U.S. Customs and Border Protection to classify products entering the United States. When an organic-specific HTS code exists for a product, that organic code must be used for the import filing. Exporters also use the appropriate organic HTS code when requesting the USDA National Organic Program Import Certificate associated with the shipment. (CCOF)
What Changed July 1, 2026?
Beginning July 1, 2026, USDA changed the filing status for 29 organic HTS codes from optional filing to required filing in the Customs and Border Protection Automated Commercial Environment, commonly called ACE. (U.S. Customs and Border Protection)
The new organic classifications cover a surprisingly broad group of products, including:
Brussels sprouts and frozen vegetable mixtures
Hemp seed and other oilseeds
Plant materials and vegetable extracts
Avocado oil and other vegetable oils
Sugars
Cocoa powder, chocolate and other cocoa products
Pasta and cereal products
Biscuits and other baked products
Orange, berry and mixed fruit juices
Soups and broths
Other prepared foods
Vodka, tequila and vinegar
The number of processed foods on the list is noteworthy. Organic trade tracking is increasingly moving beyond basic agricultural commodities and into the ingredients and finished products that make up today’s organic food supply chain.
Why Does This Matter?
One of the continuing challenges in understanding organic markets is determining how much organic product is actually entering the United States.
When an organic product has no organic-specific HTS classification, it can be difficult to separate organic trade from conventional trade using traditional customs statistics. Creating additional organic-specific codes allows imports to be identified more precisely by commodity.
That improves our ability to answer some important market questions:
How much organic product is being imported? Where is it coming from? Is import volume increasing or decreasing? What products are competing with U.S.-produced organic products?
For producers, handlers, researchers and policymakers, better trade data means a better picture of what is actually happening in the organic marketplace.
Organic HTS Codes and the NOP Import Certificate
The HTS codes also work together with another major change in organic import oversight: the electronic NOP Import Certificate.
Since March 19, 2024, each shipment of certified organic agricultural products imported into the United States must be associated with an NOP Import Certificate issued by an accredited certifying agent through USDA’s Organic INTEGRITY Database. USDA states that one NOP Import Certificate is issued per commodity/product or HTS code. (USDA Agricultural Marketing Service)
That creates an important connection between organic certification and customs information:
NOP Import Certificate → verifies the organic shipment
Organic HTS Code → identifies the organic product entering the country
Together, these systems provide USDA and Customs and Border Protection with better tools for traceability, enforcement and market information.
An Important Point for Organic Handlers and Importers
U.S. Customs and Border Protection warns that organic shipments arriving without a valid NOP Import Certificate number can be subject to re-export, restricted donation or destruction. Shipments with incorrect or nonconforming certificate information may also receive additional scrutiny or be rejected. (U.S. Customs and Border Protection)
For handlers importing organic products, this makes correct product classification increasingly important. Importers should make certain that their customs broker is using the correct organic HTS code when one exists and that the HTS information agrees with the NOP Import Certificate.
Better Information for the Organic Marketplace
Twenty-nine additional organic trade classifications will not answer every question about organic imports, but they are another important step toward making the organic supply chain more transparent.
For those of us trying to understand organic markets, that is particularly valuable. Instead of simply hearing that “imports are increasing,” better organic-specific trade data can help us determine which products are entering the United States, how much is entering and where those products originate.
That is information both organic farmers and organic handlers can use.
