Tag: Agriculture

Launching a New Chapter in Alfalfa Water Research

Yme Bosma 55-acre alfalfa field near Rising Star, Texas

In the heart of Central Texas, just outside May, we’ve begun an exciting research collaboration with Yme Bosma Dairy—a family-run dairy that relies on homegrown forage to feed their high-producing herd. This project centers on a 55-acre alfalfa field managed under a center pivot irrigation system, and our goal is straightforward but critical: improve the way we grow and water alfalfa in drought-prone environments like ours.

Why Focus on Alfalfa and Water?

Alfalfa is a high-value, nutrient-rich forage crop widely used in dairy systems, especially organic dairies. But it’s also water-intensive, and in regions like Central Texas or even Texas in general, where every drop counts, managing water wisely isn’t optional—it’s essential.

We’re not just asking “How much water is used?”—we’re digging deeper:

  • Can we grow more forage with less water?
  • Can we use in-field sensors and aerial data to guide irrigation decisions?
  • Can we improve the crop coefficient (Kc) used in scheduling tools, making them more accurate for this region?

Field Setup: A Unique Design for Real-World Impact

Pierce Center Pivot with app-based control

The project field is irrigated by a Pierce center pivot, managed by Dyson Irrigation using app-based controls. What makes this setup unique is how we’ve divided the field. Rather than square or rectangular plots, we’ve created 10-degree radial swaths that fan out from the center of the pivot pad—like slices of a pie. Each wedge can be irrigated differently by adjusting the pivot’s speed, allowing us to simulate a range of water conditions all within one field.

These swaths have been geolocated precisely, so we know exactly where each biosample or soil moisture sensor reading comes from. Though the field layout map is a great visual aid, our true experimental plots are mapped in GIS with accurate GPS coordinates for each treatment zone.

This project includes a lot of folks but is coordinated by the Digital Agriculture Group out of the Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center in Corpus Christi – Digital Agriculture. The group is led by Dr. Mahendra Bhandari and his team of researchers and students, all very hard workers!

Tools and Technology: Ground to Sky

What makes this project especially powerful is the technology behind it. We’ve installed three-foot-long soil moisture sensors (Goanna Ag) in each plot to monitor how deeply water penetrates and how long it stays available to the plant. These in-situ sensors give us real-time feedback at the root zone—a critical layer for alfalfa, especially in hot summer months.

In addition to ground sensors, we’re collecting UAS (drone) imagery every 15–20 days, paired with high-resolution satellite imagery. These tools will help us develop:

A GPS receiver to geolocate the different areas for monitoring.

  • Evapotranspiration maps showing water use across the field
  • Biomass prediction models based on imagery
  • Real-time irrigation scheduling tools using soil moisture and crop stage

All of this data funnels into decision-support models like SEBAL (Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land) and artificial neural networks, which help us simulate and optimize irrigation in silage alfalfa production.

Yme Bosma alfalfa ready to cut. The field is cut, wilted for a few hours and then chopped for silage.

What We Hope to Deliver

This is just the beginning. Over the next growing seasons, we aim to provide:

  • A better understanding of alfalfa water use and crop coefficients in Central Texas
  • New irrigation scheduling recommendations tailored for silage production
  • Biomass yield maps and stress indicators derived from aerial data
  • Practical insights for dairies and forage growers seeking to optimize yield while conserving water

This project is part of a broader effort to make alfalfa a more drought-resilient crop, and we’re excited to share what we learn with farmers, agronomists, and researchers across Texas and beyond.

This research is supported by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture award number 2023-70005-41080 (Drought Resilient Alfalfa Production (D-RAP) Using Digital Agriculture and Machine Learning) with a joint collaboration between Kansas State University and Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension.

Stay tuned—we’ll be posting updates after each harvest, including images, early data trends, and insights from the field.

Texas Organic Agriculture Surges Forward with National Recognition

TOPP Impact Report Underscores Texas Leadership in Organic Milk, Cotton, and Peanuts

As national organic food sales soar past $71 billion, Texas is emerging as a dominant force in organic agriculture, bolstered by strategic investment from the USDA’s Transition to Organic Partnership Program (TOPP). According to TOPP’s newly released 2024 Impact Report, over 3,800 new operations have been certified nationwide, and Texas producers are taking the lead in organic innovation, acreage growth, and market share.

Texas is now home to more than 448 certified organic farms and over 611 organic handlers, producing across 580,000 acres in at least 88 counties. The Lone Star State ranks No. 1 nationally in organic milk, cotton, and peanut production — a testament to the state’s diversified and growing organic economy.

In 2019, Texas organic agriculture generated $424 million in sales and nearly $939 million in total economic output. By 2025, projections indicate the sector will contribute more than $1.4 billion in statewide economic output and support nearly 12,500 jobs, with a compound annual growth rate of 7% that mirrors national trends.

“Texas isn’t just keeping up—we’re leading,” said Bob Whitney, Organic Program Specialist with Texas A&M AgriLife Extension. “From dairy and peanuts in the west to vegetables and rice in the south and east, organic producers across Texas are creating real jobs, feeding local communities, and demonstrating what’s possible when farmers get the support they need.”

TOPP, launched in 2022 as part of the USDA Organic Transition Initiative, has helped hundreds of producers nationwide navigate the complex path to organic certification through mentorship, technical assistance, and community networks. Texas producers have benefited through local TOPP training events, bilingual outreach, and one-on-one mentoring that is helping new farmers transition more successfully and more sustainably.

As part of the six-region national framework, TOPP’s Southwest region includes a coalition of regional organizations and universities—including Texas A&M AgriLife Extension—that provide tailored support to Texas producers. Nationally, more than 260,000 acres have been added to certified organic production through the program’s efforts.

Texas’s success stands out even as some regions of the U.S. experience flat or declining organic acreage. Experts credit the state’s focused approach—blending grassroots mentoring, university-led research, and Extension outreach—for enabling sustainable growth.

TOPP’s report also highlights growing consumer demand: 88% of Americans recognize the USDA Organic label, and nearly 60% believe it justifies higher prices, creating strong economic incentives for Texas farmers to meet that demand domestically.

“TOPP is about more than transitioning farms—it’s about building community, restoring soil, and securing food systems,” said Whitney. “And here in Texas, it’s working.”

To learn more:
Full report: https://organictransition.org/impact-report

Organic Beef Demand is on the rise!

Organic Beef is Booming: Why Texas Ranchers Should Take Notice

Organic beef is no longer a niche product—it’s a fast-growing category with powerful momentum. According to the Organic Trade Association’s 2024–2025 Organic Market Report, organic beef sales surged 36.7% last year. That’s the highest growth rate of any food category—and the most significant gain in the organic beef market in 20 years.

This demand is fueled by consumers looking for:

  • Clean, hormone- and antibiotic-free protein
  • Animal welfare
  • Environmental stewardship

However, much of this market is currently being supplied by imports—primarily from Australia and Uruguay. That’s where Texas ranchers come in.

Texas Has the Cattle—Now It Has more Processors

Texas leads the nation in cattle production, yet very few certified organic beef operations have emerged in the state. The reason? Lack of access to certified organic meat processing facilities.

That’s now changing.

Two Texas processors are leading the way:

  • All Hale Meats near Wolfforth, close to Lubbock
  • Huse’s Country Meats in Malone, TX (east of Hillsboro)

Huse’s, a long-standing family-owned processor known for quality smoked meats, has recently become certified organic, thanks in part to rancher Larry Widman of Leafy Creek Farm. Larry helped initiate and complete the certification process so he could market his own beef—and he continues to assist other ranchers with organic slaughter scheduling.

To schedule your organic cattle for processing:
📧 widman@leafycreekfarm.com
📱 325-330-2170

Modeling Success: Open Range Beef in Nebraska

Texas ranchers can look to Open Range Beef in Nebraska as a blueprint. Run by Tim Goodnight, this company processes and markets organic beef across multiple channels—from retail and foodservice to private label and club stores. Their success proves that domestic supply chains can work—when producers and processors are aligned.

Contact Tim Goodnight 🌐 openrangebeef.com

Why Texas Is Ideal for Organic Beef

Texas has a unique opportunity:

  • Abundant native rangeland well-suited to low-input, organic grazing
  • Proximity to two certified organic processors
  • A central location to serve local, regional, and statewide markets

With the infrastructure in place, ranchers can now tap into the fastest-growing sector in organic food.

One potential outlet is Pederson’s Natural Farms in Hamilton, TX, known for high-quality natural meats. As supply increases, retailers like Pederson’s—and others—can become key distribution points for Texas-grown organic beef.

Could Tariffs and Trade Changes Open the Door Further?

While Australia and Uruguay currently supply a large share of organic beef imports, this supply chain is vulnerable to:

  • Global trade shifts
  • Export restrictions
  • Increased transportation costs
  • Potential U.S. tariffs on imported meat

As U.S. policymakers and trade organizations review food security and prioritize resilient domestic supply chains, we may see fewer imports and greater opportunities for U.S.-based production. That’s good news for ranchers with the capacity to go organic—and for consumers looking for American-grown, organic, and ethically raised meat.

Next Steps for Ranchers

If you’re in Texas and run a cow-calf, grass-fed, or finished beef operation, now is the time to:

  1. Explore organic certification of your pastures and practices.
  2. Connect with a certified processor like Huse’s or All Hale Meats.
  3. Develop local markets—co-ops, farm stores, health food outlets, and online direct-to-consumer sales.

This isn’t just about beef—it’s about building a more local, more ethical, and more profitable Texas-based food system.

Oregano Essential Oil: A Natural Solution for Boosting Health and Performance in Organic Livestock

In organic livestock production, finding effective natural alternatives to synthetic inputs is both a challenge and an opportunity. Recently, I came across two compelling articles in Bovine Veterinarian magazine that shed light on the potential of essential oils—particularly oregano oil—as substitutes for synthetic feed additives like ionophores. The November/December 2024 edition featured Maureen Hanson’s article, “OREGANO: Not Just for Pizza Anymore,” which explored oregano essential oil as a natural alternative.1 Similarly, the March/April 2025 issue included Hanson’s follow-up piece, “Hello Essential Oils and Goodbye Ionophores?”2 These articles highlighted emerging research suggesting essential oils could be a potential livestock production enhancement and when you get two articles on the same subject you begin to notice!

Why Replace Ionophores?

Ionophores are antimicrobial compounds commonly used in conventional livestock production to manipulate rumen microbial populations. For example, monensin—a widely used ionophore—improves feed efficiency and daily weight gains by promoting favorable rumen fermentation. However, ionophores are prohibited in organic systems due to their synthetic nature and concerns about antibiotic resistance. Consumer demand for cleaner food has also prompted scrutiny of ionophore use in several countries.

For organic producers, this presents a challenge: how can we maintain or improve herd performance and health without compromising organic standards or animal welfare? This is where essential oils are gaining attention as viable alternatives.

Essential Oils Show Promise in Cattle

A recent study led by Dr. Jaymelynn Farney at Kansas State University3 evaluated the use of essential oils in stocker cattle diets. In this trial, 281 steers were divided into two groups: one group received minerals with an ionophore (monensin), while the other received minerals containing a proprietary blend of essential oils—including garlic, oregano, cinnamon, lemongrass, and capsaicin.

The results were strikingly similar:

  • Cattle fed essential oils gained an average of 2.13 pounds per day over 90 days.
  • Cattle fed ionophores gained 2.15 pounds per day.
  • Mineral intake and total weight gain were nearly identical between groups.

Interestingly, the essential oil mix was slightly less expensive than the ionophore mix. While no significant differences in cattle behavior were observed, Farney noted a mild increase in heart rate among cattle fed essential oils—a potential indication of vasodilation (increased blood flow), which is a known effect of certain essential oils.

Oregano – Origanum vulgare, also known as wild marjoram

Improving Calf Health with Oregano Oil

On the dairy side, a study conducted at Aristotle University in Greece4 investigated the use of oregano essential oil to combat diarrhea in newborn Holstein calves. Neonatal diarrhea is a common issue for dairy producers, especially those adhering to organic standards that restrict antibiotic use.

In this study:

  • Calves treated with a daily oregano oil drench for their first 10 days of life experienced fewer days with diarrhea.
  • Treated calves had lower overall diarrhea severity and shorter illness duration.
  • The need for antibiotics and supportive therapies was significantly reduced.

These findings are particularly relevant for organic dairy producers who often face challenges maintaining calf health without relying on conventional medications.

Practical Takeaways

So that you can get a general idea of the approximate amounts these studies are using when feeding oregano essential oil.

For Dairy Cows

Recommended dosage is 15 ml/day/cow for 28 days.

  • Product Price: A quart (946 ml) of Orego-Stim Liquid costs $35.
  • Daily Cost per Cow: 15 ml/946 ml × 35 = $0.550 per day per cow.
  • Total Cow Cost – 28 Days Treatment × $0.550/day = $15.54 per cow

For Dairy Calves

  • Product Price: A quart (946 ml) of Orego-Stim Liquid costs $35
  • Maintenance Dosage: 2 ml/day/calf mixed into milk until weaning.
  • Extra Support Dosage: 10 ml/day/calf for 10 days, followed by 2 ml/day/calf until weaning.

Daily Cost per Calf

  • Maintenance: 2 ml/946 ml × $35 =$0.074 per day per calf
  • Extra Support: 10 ml/946 ml × $35 = $0.37 per day per calf

Total Cost for Weaning Period (56 days)

  • Extra Support Dosage: 10 days at $0.370/day = $3.70
  • Maintenance Dosage: Remaining 46 days at $0.074/day = $3.40
  • Total Cost: $3.70 + $3.40 = $7.10 per calf      

Replacing Monensin with Oregano in Grower Diets

Another study by researchers in China5 examined oregano essential oil as a replacement for monensin in grower diets for weaned Holstein bulls over a 240-day trial. Bulls fed oregano oil achieved weight gains comparable to those fed monensin. However, when both oregano oil and monensin were administered together, performance decreased—suggesting an antagonistic interaction between these two compounds.

This finding underscores the importance of using oregano oil as a standalone tool rather than combining it with synthetic additives (monensin).

Why This Matters for Organic Producers

These studies offer promising insights into how essential oils can support health and productivity in organic livestock systems. Specifically:

  • Essential oils naturally promote rumen fermentation.
  • They help reduce disease pressure, such as calf diarrhea.
  • They align with consumer preferences for natural products.
  • When derived from non-synthetic sources, they comply with USDA organic regulations.

Additionally, the Kansas State trial demonstrated that essential oils can be cost-effective compared to conventional feed additives like ionophores. However, it’s important to note that outcomes may vary depending on factors such as livestock species, diet composition, management practices, and sourcing of essential oils.

Considerations Before Adopting Essential Oils

While these findings are encouraging, producers should approach essential oils with careful consideration:

  • Efficacy: Results may vary depending on formulation quality and livestock conditions.
  • Cost: Although some trials suggest cost savings, market variability could affect affordability.
  • Regulatory Compliance: Ensure that any essential oils used meet USDA organic certification requirements.
  • Potential Risks: High doses or improper formulations could lead to toxicity or unintended interactions with other feed components.

Further research is needed to fully understand how essential oils perform across diverse production systems, but these results do hold promise!

Where to Learn More

If you’re interested in experimenting with essential oils in your operation, here are a few extra resources:

  • Calsamiglia et al., 2007. “Essential oils as modifiers of rumen microbial fermentation.” Journal of Dairy Science.6
  • Greathead, 2003. “Plants and plant extracts for improving animal productivity.” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society.7

References:

  1. Hanson, Maureen. “Oregano: Not Just for Pizza Anymore.” Bovine Veterinarian, November/December 2024. ↩︎
  2. Hanson, Maureen. “Hello Essential Oils and Goodbye Ionophores?” Bovine Veterinarian, March/April 2025. ↩︎
  3. Farney, J.K., et al. (2025). “Effects on Stocker Steer Performance While Consuming Essential Oil or Ionophore Minerals.” Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Research Reports, Vol. 11: Iss. 1. ↩︎
  4. Katsoulos, P.D., et al. (2017). “Evaluation of the in-field efficacy of oregano essential oil administration on the control of neonatal diarrhea syndrome in calves.” Research in Veterinary Science, 115:478-483. ↩︎
  5. Wu, J., et al. (2020). “Dietary supplementation with oregano essential oil and monensin in combination is antagonistic to growth performance of yearling Holstein bulls.” Journal of Dairy Science, 103(9):8119-8129. ↩︎
  6. Calsamiglia et al., (2007). “Essential oils as modifiers of rumen microbial fermentation.” Journal of Dairy Science ↩︎
  7. Greathead, (2003). “Plants and plant extracts for improving animal productivity.” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. ↩︎

What the Haney Test Revealed: Biological Benefits of Cover Crops in Action

Over the past few weeks, I’ve written about what cover crops like Sunn Hemp, Tepary Bean, and Cowpea leave behind in the soil and how their nutrient contributions stack up in standard soil tests. But it wasn’t until we looked at the Haney Soil Test results from March 2025 that we could truly see the biological influence each of these summer cover crops had on the soil. In this post, I’m sharing new insights drawn from those results and why I believe every grower should consider this test when evaluating cover crop performance.

Why the Haney Test?

Unlike standard chemical soil tests that only measure nutrient availability, the Haney Test adds a biological lens. It measures microbial respiration (CO₂-C), available organic nitrogen (Haney N), and gives an overall Soil Health Score. These indicators help us understand how biologically active the soil is and how much of the nutrients are likely to cycle into plant-available forms.

For organic and sustainable systems, this is vital. We’re not just feeding the crop—we’re feeding the soil.

All Plots Started Equal

Just to set the stage: all test plots had a rye cover crop terminated in early spring 2024 and were kept bare and weed-free through summer. The only difference among plots came when Sunn Hemp, Tepary Bean, or Cowpea was planted in August 2024. The check plot remained bare.

The Biological Winners and Stragglers

Here’s what the Haney Test results (click here to see reports) show:

  • Sunn Hemp had the highest CO₂-C (43.21 ppm), strong Haney N (74.74 lbs/ac), and the highest Soil Health Score (9.41). It fed the microbes and left behind a soil system ready to cycle nutrients. If you’re planting a high-demand crop like corn or grain sorghum, Sunn Hemp sets the table biologically.
  • Cowpea followed closely with a CO₂-C of 32.08 ppm, Haney N of 71.50 lbs/ac, and a Soil Health Score of 7.80. Reliable, balanced, and consistent—it’s a solid choice for improving soil function while conserving moisture and nutrients.
  • Tepary Bean, despite good forage quality and tissue N content (3.02%), showed low microbial activity (CO₂-C of 13.75 ppm) and the lowest Soil Health Score (6.43). It may decompose slower or produce compounds less favored by microbes. That’s not necessarily bad—it might serve longer-term fertility, but it’s not the best option for short-term nutrient release.
  • Check Plot (bare fallow) showed high mineral N (83.73 lbs/ac) and decent CO₂-C (37.14 ppm), but that’s misleading. There was no cover crop to feed soil life or cycle nutrients—just unutilized residuals from last year. Long term, this approach does not build soil health.
  • Click here to read a summary report – Summary of Soil Samples

What This Means for Growers

The biological boost from a cover crop can be measured and managed. Without the Haney Test, we’d only be guessing how much nitrogen or biological activity remains from cover cropping. We tell growers: don’t plant blind—use this test to make more informed fertility and management decisions.

Sunn Hemp again proved why it’s a leading summer cover crop for southern systems. Cowpea is a great second choice when water is limited or biological stimulation is still desired. Tepary Bean may have a role in longer rotations but isn’t the best for quick turnover systems.

Final Thought

We use cover crops for more than just erosion control. They’re engines of soil biology, nutrient cycling, and resilience. The Haney Test gives us a dashboard to read those engines.

If you’re not already using it, this is your sign: test for biology, not just chemistry.

Read more:

Personality Plus: Building Resilient Organic Dairy Cows from Day One

I take the Bovine Veterinarian Magazine and appearing in the March/April 2025 edition (picture below) was this interesting article on dairy calf personality by Maureen Hanson. The article rang all kinds of “bells” for me because organic dairy production requires more than just certified feed and pasture. It demands a different kind of cow—one that can thrive with lower intervention, recover from stress without antibiotics, and mature into a productive milking animal under the constraints and values of organic systems. Maureen Hanson wrote her article based on a 2024 peer-reviewed study from the University of Kentucky (Journal of Dairy Science, https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2023-24257)1 and this study offers a compelling new tool for organic dairy production: personality-based calf selection.

Bovine Veterinarian – March/April 2025

Calf Personality Predicts Future Performance

In the study, 49 Holstein calves were assessed using a series of behavioral tests designed to evaluate their responses to novelty and stress. Through principal component analysis of their behavior, researchers identified three personality traits:

  • Fearful: slower to approach novelty, more time spent being alert but not engaging
  • Active: higher movement across all tests, more physical exploration
  • Explorative: more interaction with objects and environment, less time inactive

These traits were then statistically correlated with detailed data from automatic calf feeders and wearable accelerometers tracking feeding behavior and activity. The results were striking:

  • Active calves consumed more starter grain, reached intake benchmarks earlier, and had significantly higher average daily gain (ADG) across all periods.
  • Explorative calves, surprisingly, had lower starter intake and lower ADG specifically during the weaning period.
  • Fearful calves showed no consistent associations with feed intake or growth but were clearly slower to engage with novel environments—a potential early marker for stress sensitivity.

Implications for Organic Dairy: Observation is Prevention

Organic systems are built on the foundation of preventive health, yet many dairy owners and managers are disconnected from the earliest stages of calf development. Calf rearing is often delegated to extremely capable managers but often few of the decision-makers (probably you since you are reading this) spend the time to observe how calves respond to their first illness, their first separation, or their first group housing experience.

This study confirms that those early responses matter. Calves that are more active adapt better to weaning and start feeding more quickly, leading to stronger growth and rumen development—two key goals in organic dairy management. Explorative behavior, meanwhile, may suggest curiosity but could signal greater sensitivity to changes, especially during stressful transitions.

You Can’t Manage What You Don’t Observe

The beauty of this research is that it doesn’t require high-tech tools to be useful. Yes, wearable accelerometers and automated feeders give precise measurements, but a skilled observer can spot:

  • Calves that hesitate or vocalize excessively when encountering new objects or people
  • Calves that walk their pens often versus those that stand still
  • Calves that seek out grain early versus those that delay

Even 20 minutes per pen per day, using a simple observation sheet for behavior categories like “explores new object,” “approaches person,” or “walks pen,” could help identify high-potential calves for organic dairy production systems.

A Call to Action for Organic Dairy

Early-life behavior should become part of calf selection and culling decisions in organic systems. Just as we select against structural flaws or poor production genetics, we should begin identifying calves whose temperament makes them a poor fit for organic environments. Resilience (something of extreme importance in organic dairying) is not just physical; it is behavioral.

These steps can help producers:

  • Reduce calfhood mortality and illness
  • Improve long-term health and lifetime milk production
  • Target breeding decisions for greater resilience
  • Stay within the boundaries of organic treatment rules

The goal isn’t just healthier calves. It’s to create a herd that is biologically compatible with organic practices. Personality is not just a curiosity. It’s a management tool. And for organic dairy, it might be one of the most important ones we haven’t been using.

Appendix: Early-Life Calf Behavior Observation Checklist

Use this tool I developed during the first 10–14 days of life (or whatever fits your operation) to assess each calf’s temperament and adaptability. Score each behavior during structured (regular) observation sessions or low-stress test scenarios (not when moving to a new pen!). Click: Calf Behavior Tool

Observation CategoryBehavior DescriptionScoring Notes
Novelty ApproachTime to approach a new object (e.g., colored bucket, ball) placed in pen1 = avoids; 2 = cautious/slow; 3 = approaches/touches; 4 = immediate interest
Response to HumanReaction when person enters pen or stands nearby1 = flees or hides; 2 = freezes; 3 = moves away calmly; 4 = approaches or investigates
Pen MovementGeneral movement over 10 minutes1 = mostly stationary; 2 = some walking; 3 = walks frequently; 4 = constant movement
Play BehaviorJumps, kicks, head butts, or frolics1 = none; 2 = rare; 3 = moderate; 4 = frequent
VocalizationsCalf vocalizes when alone or during change (e.g., feeding or handling)1 = silent; 2 = occasional; 3 = frequent; 4 = constant/loud
Feeder InterestTime to discover starter grain or milk feeder1 = delayed; 2 = average; 3 = quick; 4 = immediate curiosity

Score each calf twice during the observation window to account for variability. Calves with consistently high scores in movement, feeding curiosity, and play behavior may be more biologically suited to organic dairy systems. Those with consistently low or fearful responses may require extra care—or may be poor candidates for organic retention.

  1. Woodrum Setser, D., Proudfoot, K., Costa, J.H.C., Marchant-Forde, R.M., Bewley, J.M., & Cantor, M.C. (2024). Individuality of calves: Linking personality traits to feeding and activity daily patterns measured by precision livestock technology. Journal of Dairy Science, 107(5), 4512–4527. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2023-24257 ↩︎